The Learning Process and Learning Theories

The Learning Process

To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Children learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems. Pilots and aviation maintenance technicians (AMTs) need to acquire the higher levels of knowledge and skill, including the ability to exercise judgment and solve problems. The challenge for the aviation instructor is to understand how people learn, and more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the learning environment. This handbook is designed as a basic guide to educational psychology. This chapter addresses that branch of psychology directly concerned with how people learn.

Learning Theory

Learning theory may be described as a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Various branches of learning theory are used in formal training programs to improve and accelerate the learning process. Key concepts such as desired learning outcomes, objectives of the training, and depth of training also apply. When properly integrated, learning principles, derived from theories, can be useful to aviation instructors and developers of instructional programs for both pilots and maintenance technicians.

Over the years, many theories have attempted to explain how people learn. Even though psychologists and educators are not in complete agreement, most do agree that learning may be explained by a combination of two basic approaches: behaviorism and the cognitive theories.

Definition of Learning

The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a person's lifetime. To define learning, it is necessary to analyze what happens to the individual. For example, an individual's way of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and doing may change as a result of a learning experience. Thus, learning can be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience. This can be physical and overt, or it may involve complex intellectual or attitudinal changes which affect behavior in more subtle ways. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree on many common characteristics of learning.

Characteristics of Learning

Learning is Purposeful

Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique individual whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved. For example, an instructor may give two aviation maintenance students the assignment of learning certain inspection procedures. One student may learn quickly and be able to competently present the assigned material. The combination of an aviation background and future goals may enable that student to realize the need and value of learning the procedures. A second student's goal may only be to comply with the instructor's assignment, and may result in only minimum preparation. The responses differ because each student ads in accordance with what he or she sees in the situation.
Most people have fairly definate ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Their goals sometimes are short term, involving a matter of days or weeks. On the other hand, their goals may be carefully planned for a career or a lifetime. Each student has specific intentions and goals. Some may be shared by other students. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals. Their individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instruc- tor is trying to get them to learn. In the process of learning, the student's goals are of paramount significance. To be effective, aviation instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the student's goals.

Learning is a Result of Experience

Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student can learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart from a person. A person's knowledge is a result of experience, and no two people have had identical experiences. Even when observing the same event, two people react differently; they learn different things from it, according to the manner in which the situation affects their individual needs. Previous experience conditions a person to respond to some things and to ignore others.
All learning is by experience, but learning takes place in different forms and in varying degrees of richness and depth. For instance, some experiences involve the whole person while others may be based only on hearing and memory. Aviation instructors are faced with the problem of providing learning experiences that are meaningful, varied, and appropriate. As an example, students can learn to say a list of words through repeated drill, or they can learn to recite certain principles of flight by rote. However, they can make them meaningful only if they understand them well enough to apply them correctly to real situations. If an experience challenges the students, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences, and physical activity, it is more effective than a learning experience in which all the students have to do is commit something to memory.
It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical skill requires actual experience in performing that skill. Student pilots learn to fly aircraft only if their experiences include flying them; student aviation maintenance technicians learn to overhaul powerplants only by actually performing that task. Mental habits are also learned through practice. If students are to use sound judgment and develop decision-making skills, they need learning experiences that involve knowledge of general principles and require the use of judgment in salving realistic problems.

Learning is Multifaceted

If instructors see their objective as being only to train their students' memory and muscles, they are underestimating the potential of the teaching situation. Students may learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings. The fact that these items were not included in the instructor's plan does not prevent them from influencing the learning situation.
Psychologists sometimes classify learning by types, such as verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem solving, and emotional. Other classifications refer to intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudinal changes, along with descriptive terms like surface or deep learning. However useful these divisions may be, they are somewhat artificial. For example, a class learning to apply the scientific method of problem solving may learn the method by trying to solve real problems. But in doing so, the class also engages in verbal learning and sensory perception at the same time. Each student approaches the task with preconceived ideas and feelings, and for many students, these ideas change as a result of experience. Therefore, the learning process may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem solving elements all taking place at once. This aspect of learning will become more evident later in this handbook when lesson planning is discussed.
Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, students may be learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation-good or bad-depending on what they experience. Under a skillful instructor, they may learn self-reliance. The list is seemingly endless. This type of learning is sometimes referred to as incidental, but it may have a great impact on the total development of the student.

Learning is an Active Process

Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or airplane when the instructor presented the material. Neither can the instructor assume that the students can apply what they know because they can quote the correct answer verbatim. For students to learn, they need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually. But if learning is a process of changing behavior, clearly that process must be an active one.

Behaviorism

Behaviorists believe that animals, including humans, learn in about the same way. Behaviorism stresses the importance of having a particular form of behavior reinforced by someone, other than the student, to shape or control what is learned. In aviation training, the instructor provides the reinforcement. Frequent, positive reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning. This theory provides the instructor with ways to manipulate students with stimuli, induce the desired behavior or response, and reinforce the behavior with appropriate rewards. In general, the behaviorist theory emphasizes positive reinforcement rather than no reinforcement or punishment. Other features of behaviorism are considerably more complex than this simple explanation. Instructors who need more details should refer to psychology texts for a better understanding of behaviorism. As an instructor, it is important to keep in mind that behaviorism is still widely used today, because controlling learning experiences helps direct students toward specific learning outcomes
Cognitivism
The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist^[3] . He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.
 For example, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory. The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity: the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize.
Constructivism
The learning theories of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky and John Dewey serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory.^[8] Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism). Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members".^[9] Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.^[10] The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.
Informal and post-modern theories
Informal theories of education breaks down the learning process, learning authentically and with practicality. One theory deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. In Marzano’s restructuring knowledge the informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain big ideas and concept understanding.^[11] This theory states that new knowledge cannot be told to students, rather student’s current knowledge must be challenged. By challenging student’s current ideas, students can adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.                                                                         
Other learning theories
Educational Neuroscience or Neuroeducation is an emerging new learning theory. Prestigious universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, USC and others are now offering programs dedicated to neuroeducation and are developing majors and degrees in the field. It is founded on connecting what we know about how the brain processes and stores information with classroom instruction and experiences^[20] . Neuroeducation analyzed the biological change in the brain as new information is processed and looks at what environmental, emotional, social situations are best in order for the new information to be processed. It further analyzes under what conditions the brain stores information and links it to other neurons versus simply determining that the information is non-essential to store and hence reabsorbs the dendrite and dismisses the information.

President Reagan’s Challenger Mishap Speech

President Reagan’s Challenger Mishap Speech

"Ladies and Gentlemen, I'd planned to speak to you tonight to report on the state of the Union, but the events of earlier today have led me to change those plans. Today is a day for mourning and remembering. Nancy and I are pained to the core by the tragedy of the shuttle Challenger. We know we share this pain with all of the people of our country. This is truly a national loss.

Nineteen years ago, almost to the day, we lost three astronauts in a terrible accident on the ground. But we've never lost an astronaut in flight; we've never had a tragedy like this. And perhaps we've forgotten the courage it took for the crew of the shuttle. But they, the Challenger Seven, were aware of the dangers, overcame them and did their jobs brilliantly. We mourn seven heroes: Michael Smith, Dick Scobee, Judith Resnik, Ronald McNair, Ellison Onizuka, Gregory Jarvis, and Christa McAuliffe. We mourn their loss as a nation together.

To the families of the seven: we cannot bear, as you do, the full impact of this tragedy. But we feel the loss, and we're thinking about you so very much. Your loved ones were daring and brave, and they had that special grace, that special spirit that says, "Give me a challenge, and I'll meet it with joy." They had a hunger to explore the universe and discover its truths. They wished to serve, and they did. They served all of us. We've grown used to wonders in this century. It's hard to dazzle us. But for 25 years the United States space program has been doing just that. We've grown used to the idea of space, and perhaps we forget that we've only just begun. We're still pioneers. They, the members of the Challenger crew, were pioneers.

And I want to say something to the schoolchildren of America who were watching the live coverage of the shuttle's takeoff. I know it is hard to understand, but sometimes painful things like this happen. It's all part of the process of exploration and discovery. It's all part of taking a chance and expanding man's horizons. The future doesn't belong to the fainthearted; it belongs to the brave. The Challenger crew was pulling us into the future, and we'll continue to follow them.

There' s a coincidence today. On this day 390 years ago, the great explorer Sir Francis Drake died aboard ship off the coast of Panama. In his lifetime the great frontiers were the oceans, and an historian later said, "“He lived by the sea, died on it, and was buried in it." Well today we can say of the Challenger crew: Their dedication was, like Drake's, complete.

The crew of the space shuttle Challenger honored us by the manner in which they lived their lives. We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and 'slipped the surly bonds of Earth' to 'touch the face of God.'

Thank you."

Ang Bayaning Third World

                                                                Ang Bayaning Third World

 Sa pamamagitan ng panunuod ng pelikulang "Bayaning Third World’ ay inaasahan kong lalong lalawig ang aking kaisipan at kaalaman tungkol sa buhay at mga kontribusyon ng ating pambansang bayani na si Dr. Jose Rizal. Ang mga pelikulang ganito ay nakakatulong ito sa pagpapalaganap ng tunay na katauhan ni Rizal na siyang interes ng maraming tao. Sa pamamagitan din nito ay maaring makilala ko si Dr. Jose Rizal hindi lamang bilang isang bayani na nagbuwis ng kanyang buhay para sa kayang bayan kundi bilang isang anak na nagmamahal ng lubos sa kanyang ina, na inalay ang karunungan at disiplina upang maibalik ang paningin na nawala sa kanyang ina, bilang isang kapatid at kung paano siya nakisalamuha sa kanila, bilang isang kaibigan at kung paano niya pinahahalagahan ang pagmamahal at pakikisama ng isang kaibigan at higit sa lahat bilang isang mang-iibig,isang mapagmahal ngunit sa ibang kadahilanan ay nabansagang babero. Ang lahat ng ito ay naghihintay ng kasagutan habang pinapanuod ko ang "Bayaning Third World". 

 Sa umpisa ng palabas ay makikita natin ang dalawang manunulat na naghahanda at nangangalap ng impormasyon para sa isang gagawing pelikula na alinsunod sa buhay ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Ang mga pangunahing tauhan sa sinabing pelikula ay sina Joel Torre na gumanap bilang Rizal, Lara Fabregas na gumanap na Josephine Bracken, Cherry Pie Picache bilang Narcisa, Daria Ramirez na gumanap bilang Donya Lolay at sina Ricky Davao at Cris Villanueva bilang mga filmmakers. Sa pelikulang ito naipakita ng mga artista ang tunay na saloobin ng mga karakter na kanilang ginampanan. Ang sinematograpiya ng pelikula ay kahanga-hanga sapagkat kanilang binigyang-buhay muli ang ating kasaysayan habang hinuhukay ang mga sulat at pahayag ng mga mahahalagang tao sa buhay ni Rizal. Ang pelikulang ito ay may kakaibang istilo sa paglalahad ng ating kasaysayan. Ipinakilala ang mga taong nagging malapit at may kaugnayan sa buhay at kamatayan ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Ipinakilala ang kanyang ina na si Doña Lolay. Si Doña Lilay ang ina ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Siya ay may pagkamasungit. Siya ay may sakit na katarata kung kaya’t pinili ni Rizal ang mag-aral ng medisina at upang mapagaling ang kanyang inang si Doña Lolay. Isa siya sa naghubog ng kaisipan ni Dr. Jose Rizal mula ng ito’y musmos na bata pa lamang. Sumonod na ipinakilala ay si Paciano na siyang nakatatandang kapatid na lalaki ni Dr. Jose Rizal.ipinahayag niyang buo ang loob ni rizal at handa na itong mamatay sa edad na 30.  Si Paciano ang nakatatandang kapatid na lalaki ni Rizal ay isa pa rin sa humubog sa kaisipan ni Rizal. Si Rizal ay inspirasyon sa kanya. Hindi rin siya payag sa pag’aaklas katulad ni Rizal. Ayon sa kanya ang kamatayan ni Dr. Jose Rizal ay tanggap na nito ang kanyang maagang kamatayan. Sila ay sobrang malapit sa isa’t isa at wala na silang masasabi pa sa isa’t isa. Si Rizal ay binansagan ding "small but terrible" sapagkat di sya katangkaran at may pagkabansot ngunit at kanyang kaisipan at kaalaman ay hindi maipaliwanag.  May mga kultong sumasamba kay Rizal at ginawa siyang isang diyos. Ang mga ginawa at kotribusyon ni Dr. Jose Rizal sa sining at iba pang aspeto ay binanggit.

Binanggit rin ang isang produktong deodorant na kung saaan ito ay ipinangalan kay Rizal at nagsasabing sa paggamit mo ng produktong ito ay hindi ka mag-aamoy indio. Inihalitulad din siya kay Flor Contemplacion na binitay sa ibang bansa. Nasabi rin dito ang tungkol sa sulat ni Dr. Jose Rizal kay Mracelo H. Del Pilar kung saan sinasabi niyang pinaghahandaan na niya ang kanyang kamatayan sa edad na tatlumpo. Ngunit ng siya ay bumalik sa Pilipinas galling sa bansang Hongkong ay ganap na siyang 31 taong gulang. Ipinatapon siya sa dapitan kung saan nakilala niya si Josephine Bracken na naging kasintahan niya habang siya ay nasa Dapitan. Ipinakilala si Josephine Bracken bilang kasintahan ni Rizal o bilang espiya ng mga prayle. Sinasabi rin na si Josephine Bracken ay nagsasayaw sa isang club sa Hongkong. Tinalakay din dito ang tungkol sa mga dokumento at kasulatan na pinirmahan di umano ni Dr. Jose Rizal kaugnay ng pagpapakasal niya kay Josephine Bracken. Isinasaad sa kasulatan na ito na siya ay nagbabalik-loob sa simbahang katolika. Nakasaad dito na Disyembre 29, 1896, isang araw bago siya ipabaril sa bagong bayan ay nagpakasal siya kay Josephine Bracken. Ang sumunod na ipinakilala ay si Narcisa inihayag niya na madalas daw magpunta sa Josephine sa simbahan tuwing alas sais ng gabi. At ng minsang sundan siya ni Trining ay nakita niya itong may kausap na prayle. Ayon kay Narcisa si Dr. Jose Rizal ay maamo at masunuring tao. Di rin daw matigas ang ulo nito. Si trining ang sumunod na ipinakilala sa pelikula. Si Trining ay isa sa mga kapatid na babae ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Maging si Trining ay hindi makapaniwala na nilagdaan ni Dr. Jose Rizal and kasulatan o ang retraction. Noong 1948 ay umupa pa siya ng isang espiritista upang makapanayam ang kaluluwa ni Rizal.

Noong 1949 2 taon bago siya pumanaw ay muli siyang nagpahayag ng kanyang saloobin ukol sa retraction. Ngunit sa pagkakataong ito ay binawi niya ang kanyang unang sinabi at inihayag na naniniwala na siya na bumaligtad nga si rizal o pumirma nga ng pakikipagkasundo si Dr. Jose Rizal sa mga prayle. Si Padre Balaguer ang kasunod na inimbestigahan. Ayon sa kanya ay siya ang testigo sa pagpirma ni Dr. Jose Rizal sa iskandalosong kasulatan. Ayon sa kanya ay humingi pa ng kumpisal si Rizal at humiling din ng isang misa para sa kanya. Ang comprontasyon ang huling kabanata. Dito tinalakay ang isang tulang isinulat ni Rizal at inilagay sa isang lampara and "Adios de Patria Adorada". Tinalakay rin dito na may isa pa syang sulat na tinago sa kanyang sapatos na suot nya ng sya ay barilin. Sa kahuli-hulihang yugto ng pelikula ay sumuko na sa pagsasaliksik ng mga gray areas sa buhay ni Rizal ang dalawang filmmakers sapagkat nahihirapan silang ipaghiwalay ang personal na paniniwala sa naitalang kasaysayan ng buhay ni Rizal. Ngunit, ang mga spekulasyon tungkol sa dokyumentong retraksyon ni Rizal ay nananatili sa ating mga isipan. Bakit nga ba Third World ang pamagat ng pelikula? Sapagkat sinasabing marupok o third class lamang ang pagkabayani ni Dr. Jose Rizal. 

 Ang Bayaning 3rd World, isang pelikulang imbestigasyon sa pagka-bayani ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Sino si Rizal? Ang pambansang bayani ng Pilipinas, The Great Malayan, at ang natatanging Indio Bravo. Maaakit kang panuorin ang mga susunod na tagpo sapagkat may pagkacomedy ang ginawang pelikula. Magsisimula ang tunay na pelikula kung saan ihahayag nila ang buhay at pagkatao ni Rizal sa pagpapakilala ng mga taong naing bahagi ng buhay at kamatayan ni Rizal. Sa kaibuturan, pelikula ng kung paano gumawa ng pelikula tungkol sa buhay ni Rizal ang "bayaning third world".

Sa maraming brainstorming at pag-aaway na pagdadaanan ng dalawang filmmakers, iisa lang ang pagkakasunduan nila: hindi magandang materyal ang pelikula ng bayani, hindi cinematic. Kahit pa nga raw isama ang pagiging matinik nito sa mga babae. Aba, sasabihin pa nila, mas maganda pa yatang isapelikula ang buhay ng uliran niyang ina. At least si Donya Loleng, pinagbintangan ng tangkang pagpatay at ipinalakad nang malayo papunta sa pagkukulungan nito. Si Rizal ay sumasagisag sa ating lahi at bayan kung kaya’t nararapat lamang na ang larawan niya ang mailagay sa piso nasiyang simbolo ng ating salapi. Kung tutuusin ay naging maikli lamang ang naging buhay ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Ngunit sa kabila nito ay punong-puno ito ng kulay. May dalawang filmmaker na unang gumawa ng pelikula ukol sa buhay ni Dr. Jose Rizal. Ngunit ang naunang matapos ang naunang matapos ay kinunan lamang ang tinatawag na "The Execution" sapagkat dito makikita ang pinaka interisadong parte ng buhay ni Dr. Jose Rizal. 

Isa si Padre Balaguer sa may mga kinalaman sa pagkamatay ni Dr.Jose Rizal. Siya ay isa sa naghatol sa kanya ng kamatayan. Sinasabi rin niya na siya ang nagkasal kay Dr.Jose Rizal at Josephine Bracken isang araw matpos na barilin si Dr.Jose Rizal sa bagong bayan. 

Sa kabuuan ay napakaganda ng ipinakitang pelikula, malinaw na naihatid ang mga impormasyon at mga pangyayaring naganap sa ating pambansang bayani. Ang mga tauhan ay gumanap ng napakaganda at sila mismo ay naging bahagi sa karakter sa buhay ni Rizal. Ang pelikulang ito ay naglalahad ng mensahe kung ang ating pambansang bayni nga ba ay marupok at pang third class lamang. Napakarami kong natutunan at naintindihan ukol sa buhay ng ating pambansang bayani. Napatunayan din na hindi pang third class ang ating pambansang bayani, sapagkat si Rizal ay larawan ng isang mabuting Pilipino at modelo sa lahat ng tao. Si Dr. Jose Rizal ay maituturing natin na isang inspirasyon at idolo sapagkat ang kanyang kabayanihang ipinakita ay hindi matatawaran, siya ay napakadakila at napakatapang, pinili niyang ipagtanggol ang bayan sa halip ang sariling kapakanan, siay ay napakamakabayan at dapat tularan.

Ang Medalyon ng San Benito

Ang medalyang ito ay orihinal na nagmula sa isang krus sa karangalan ni San Benito. Ang medalyon ay may imahe ni San Benito, kung saan hawak niya ang HOLY RULE sa kanyang kaliwang kamay at isang krus sa kanyang kanan. Sa Harapan ng medalya ay makikita ang mga salitang ito "EIUS IN OBITU NOSTRO PRAESENTIA MUNIAMUR" ("Kami, sa aming kamatayan, ay pagtibayin sa pamamagitan ng kanyang presensya"). Ang likurang bahagi ng medalya ay may krus na may patayong initial na CSSML na ang salin ay ganito "CRUX SACRA SIT MIHI LUX" ("ang mahal na krus ang siya kong maging ilaw") at sa pahalang naman ay ganito NDSMD na tumayo para sa "NON DRACO SIT MIHI DUX" ("Kailan may huwag kong maging patnugot ang DEMONIO"). Ang initial na CSPB ay "CRUX SANCTI PATRIS BENEDICTI" ("Ang Cross na Banal ng Amang San Benito") ay makikita sa panloob na mga anggulo ng krus. Makikita rin ang katagang "PAX" (Peace) o sa Christogram "IHS" ay mahahanap sa tuktok ng krus. Paikot naman sa medalya ay ang katagang VADE RETRO SATANA may initial na VRSNSMV na tumatayo para sa "Vade Retro Satana, Nonquam Suade Mihi Vana" ("Lumayo ka sa akin SATANAS huwag mo akong tuksuhin sa kapalaluan") at ang sumunod ay ang initial na ito SMQLIVB na ang basag ay "Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas" ("ang inihahandog mo sa akin ay masama, ikaw rin ang uminom ng lason.")


Base sa aking nasipi sa isang note ng dati kong kasama ito ang gamit ng Medalyon ni San Benito:

• Daya ng Demonyo
  Exorcismo
  Hayop na may sakit
  Mahirap na panganganak
  Sakit, Lintik. Kidlat, Sigwa, sama ng panahon, peste, lason, apolegia, panginginig.

Ito naman ang pamamaraan na nakasulat sa kanyang note:

• Hagkan ang Medalyon at magdasal ng sumusunod;
  5 Gloria Patri
  3 Ave Maria
  1 Pater Noster

Note:
This medal was first struck in 1880 to commemorate the fourteenth centenary of St Benedict's birth and is also called the Jubilee Medal; its exact origin, however, is unknown. In 1647, during a witchcraft trial at Natternberg near Metten Abbey in Bavaria, the accused women testified they had no power over Metten, which was under the protection of the cross. An investigation found a number of painted crosses on the walls of the abbey with the letters now found on St Benedict medals, but their meaning had been forgotten. A manuscript written in 1415 was eventually found that had a picture of Saint Benedict holding a scroll in one hand and a staff which ended in a cross in the other. On the scroll and staff were written the full words of the initials contained on the crosses. Medals then began to be struck in Germany, which then spread throughout Europe. This medal was first approved by Pope Benedict XIV in his briefs of December 23, 1741, and March 12, 1742.

Demand and Supply

ALLAN C. GULINAO

BSED-MATH-1-1

  

    THE INTERACTION OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand. Market price is dependent upon both of these fundamental market forces. The successful commodity trading transaction occurs when buyersdemand and sellerssupply
agree on price. When this exchange occurs, the agreed upon
price is called the equilibrium price, or market clearing price.
This can be seen below as supply and demand.

Buyers and sellers are willing to exchange the amount of
commodity Q at the agreed price P. At this point, supply and
demand is in balance. At any price below P, the amount
demanded is greater than the amount of supply. This situation
would create a price in which the producer is unwilling to
supply, creating a commodity shortage. In order to obtain the
commodity consumers would have to pay a higher price, while
producers would demand higher prices in order to bring more
supply to the market. The end result is a rise in prices to the
point P, where supply and demand is once again in balance.
However, if prices rose above P, the market would have a
surplus glut; more supply relative to demand. Producers
would have to reduce prices in order to clear the market of
excess supply. At this point, Consumers would then increase
purchases as a result of the lower prices. Prices will balance
until supply and demand are again in balance at point P above.

Market prices are not always fairly priced to all in the
marketplace. Supply and demand does not always guarantee
buyers and sellers; this depends on their competitive positions
within the market. Market prices play a central role in
competitive landscape of the commodity markets; extremely
low prices result in excess profits for the buyer, attracting
demand. Conversely, excessively high prices attract additional
producer competition, which creates supply. Therefore,
varying price levels exist where buyers and sellers are
satisfied, creating market price.

The law of supply and demand is one of the basic founding principles of economics. The law states that as supply goes up and demand stays the same, the value of the item goes down because there is more of the item than is needed. Therefore, the price of an item goes up if supply is low and demand is high because people are prepared to pay more for something they need.

I think this law is incredibly important for the welfare of all people in business because it prevents large corporations from making too much money unless the consumer body increases. Because, unless the demand increases, the same amount of products has to be made, or, the value of the product decreases and nobody benefits. This is the reason there is always a race for a new consumer body. Once one company has control the other companies cannot take their market.

This law can be applied to all situations where there is an item being purchased. One of the things that changed for the world in the Industrial Revolution was that labor became a commodity. There was a market of workers who would sell their labor to companies and companies would buy their work. An example of supply and demand in a work force is with engineers. There are not many engineers in the world but the demand is huge so engineers are paid very well and have a very powerful position because they can choose where to work. Here’s an example of the law applied to a commodity. We all know that diamonds are very valuable, but they would be worth nothing if there were piles and piles of diamonds in street because the demand for diamonds would be much less than the supply.

The law of supply and demand is what keeps businesses on its toes, and it is also the principle of trade. If the demand of a product in country 1 is much bigger than the supply of the product and country 2 has more supply than demand then country 2 can export the product and get a better price than it would get in country 1.

The law of supply and demand is a fundamental rule in life, and trade would not exist without it. It is a law that we sometimes don’t notice, but when you think, it’s amazing what a huge role it plays in our lives. Our way of thinking is based on it and it is impossible for life to be anything like it is now without it.

The Law of Demand:

The law of demand says that if price of goods is higher, the less people will demand that good, in other words the higher in price, lower the quantity demand. The amount of a good that buyer purchase at higher price is less because the price of good goes up.

As a result people will naturally avoid buying that product; they will prefer to buy an

alternate of that good which reaches their income.

 The Law of Supply:

The law of supply states that if price of good is higher the supply of the good increase, because the producer supply more at higher price, selling a good at higher price will increase their revenue.

LAW OF DEMAND and REASONS

The law of demand can be explained by:
1) Price being an obstacle to consumption
2) Diminishing marginal utility
3) Price change income effect and substitution effect

INCOME EFFECT

The law of demand can be explained by observing that an unexpected price change
affects the purchasing power of consumers. If the price is lower than expected, income is
liberated which allows the consumer to buy more. An unexpected price increase would
cause the consumer to buy less.

LAW OF SUPPLY

The law of supply postulates that the relationship between price and quantity in the

mind of sellers or producers is a direct one. When price increases so does quantity.

LAW OF SUPPLY REASONS

The law of supply is explained by
1) Price being an inducement for sellers or producers to sell more, and
2) Cost of production increasing (because of the law of diminishing returns)

SUPPLY DETERMINANTS

Price is the major determinant of supply. Nonprice determinants are: -
1) Number of sellers or producers
2) Costs of production (including taxes)
3) Technology (since it affects costs)
4) Prices of other goods (as sources of possible profits)
5) Expectations (but the effect is ambiguous).

Research

A.Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential

procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a

problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.

B.Research is controlled. All variables except those that are

tested or being experimented upon are kept constant so thatthe changes made on the subjects of the study can beattributed only to the experimental variable.

C.Research is empirical. All procedures employed and the

data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all

observers.

D.Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the

data used so that there is no error in their interpretation.

E.Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All findings

and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no

effort is made to alter the results of the research.

F.Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the

investigation process. In experimental. In experimentalstudies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptivestudies, the specific sub problems or specific questions serveas the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and notproved.

G.Research employs quantitative or statistical methods.

Data are transformed into numerical measures and aretreated statistically to determine their significance orusefulness.

H.Research is original work. Data are gathered from primary

sources or first hand sources and not from secondary sources.

I.Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses valid

and carefully designed procedures, valid data – gathering

instruments, and valid data.

J.Research is accurate investigation, observation and

description. Every research activity must be done accurately

so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific

generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

K.Research is patient and unhurried activity. This to ensure

accuracy.

L.Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research

can be conducted without the exertion of much effort because

research involves much work and time.

M.Research requires courage. Research requires courage

because the researcher oftentimes undergoes hazards,

discomforts and the like

Pluma

                                    Pluma: Rizal AngDakilangManunulat

AngplumangatingpambansangbayaniangkanyangnagingmabisangsandatanoongpanahonngmgaKastila.IsinulatniyaangNoli Me Tangere at El Filibusterismonasiyangnagmulatsamga Pilipino nalumaban at ipagtanggolangsarilingbayanlabansamgadayuhan.

            Para sa akin, siDr. Jose Rizal ay isangmodelo at inspirasyonsalahatngmga Pilipino. Angkanyangmganagawa ay dapattularan, tuladniyanaisko ring magingisangmagalingnamanunulat. IsangtunaynabayanisiDr. Jose Rizal dahilnilabananniyaangkatiwalian at pang aabusongpamahalaangKastila.  Angedukasyonrinnakanyangnakamitangnagingsusiupangmakapagsulatsiyangakdanasiyangmagmumulatsamga Pilipino samgamalinggawain at pamamahalangmgaKastila. Ito rinangnagingdaansapagbuoniyangisang propaganda at pagtatayong La Liga Filipina nasiyangnaglalathalangmgababasahinnanagpapakitang pang aabuso at katiwalianngmgaKastila.

            Si Dr. Jose Rizal ay isangrepormista.Itinatagniyaang La Liga Filipina upangmagkaisaangmga Pilipino.Angkanyangtulang “Sa akingmgaKabata” ay nagtuturongpagmamahalsasarilingwika. Angmalungkotnakalagayanngmga Pilipino angnagingtanglawupanggisinginangkanilangdamdaminsapamamagitanngpagsulatngNoli MeTangere at El Filibusterismo. AngNoli MeTangere ay kuwentongnagbubunyagngpagmamalabis, karuwaganpagkaganid, at kalupitanngmgapinuno at praylengKastila.Ang El Filibusterismonaman ay isangnobelangpolitikalnanagsasabingnalalapitnaangrebolusyonngbansa. AlamniDr. Jose Rizal naangkanyangmgamambabasa ay angmgaKastiladahilisinulatniyaangakdasawikangkastila. Ito narinangnaginghudyatupangmagingbantasapamahalaangKastilasiDr. Jose Rizal. Marami ring babaeangnagingbhagingbuhayniya, isanaritosi Leonor Rivera ngunithindisilanagkatuluyandahilnarinsapaghadlangngpamilyanito. Nang magbaliksiyasaPilipinasnoong 1982, siya ay dinakip at ikinulongsa Fort Santiago pagkatapos ay ipinataponsaDapitan.

            AngbuhayniDr. Jose Rizal ay nagbibigaynginspirasyonsalahatngmga Pilipino. Mahalagangipaglabannatiangsarilingbayan at atingmgakarapatan.Ipinabatidrinsa atin angkahalagahanngeduskasyonsabawatisa at hindilamangsarili at pamilyaangdapatnatingunahin. Nang mamataysiDr. Jose Rizal ay nag-iwansiyangmarka at pag-asasapusongbawatisang Pilipino. Angatingpambansangbayani ay sumasalaminsalahatngmga Pilipino,  TunayngangisangdakilangmanunulatsiDr. Jose Rizal, karapat-dapatlamangnasiyaangmagingpambansangbayaningbansangPilipinas.

Rizal: Ang Pambansang Bayani

Allan C. Gulinao         

BSED-MT-2-1

            Si Dr. Jose Rizal ay mayroong ugaling nababagay sa mga Pilipino, tulad ng pagiging masipag, matalino at mapagmahal sa bayan. Kahit  siya ay hindi sa Pilipinas nagaral makikita pa rin sa kanya ang pagiging Pilipino. Tulad ng pagsulat niya ng dalawang nobela sa ibang bansa. Ang mga aklat ni rizal ang gumising sa mga Pilipino upang lumaban sa pamahalaan ng Kastila.

            Siya ang napiling pambansang bayani ng Pilipinas dahil ginising niya ang mga Pilipino sa pangaalipin ng mga Kastila. Karapat-dapat lamang na si Dr. Jose Rizal ang maging pambansang bayani ng ating bansa dahil sa kanyang mga nagawa at siya ay isang larawan ng kapayapaan. Ang kanyang paraang ginamit ay sumugat ng husto sa mga prayle, mapayapa ang kanyaang paraan ng pagtuligsa at paglaban sa mga Kastila. Hindi niya ginamit ang dahas upang walang magbuwis ng buhay. Ang Noli Me Tangere at El Filibusterismo ang ginamit niyang sandata ito rin ang isang dahilan upang siya ay piliin na maging pambansang bayani ng Pilipinas.

            Iniluklok sa trono si Rizal bilang Pambansang bayani dahil siya lang ang bukod tanging Pilipino na nagkaroon noon ng lakas ng loob na kalabanin ang mga dayuhan sa pamamagitan ng pagsulat na may paninindigan. Bukod pa sa pagiging napakatalinong tao at may natatanging katangian na nagmulat sa mga nagbubulagbulagang mga mata ng mga Pilipino noong mga panahong iyon. Siya ang klase ng taong hindi makasarili bagkus ay inisip nya rin ang kapakanan ng mga kababayan niya. Nagbuwis pa siya ng buhay para sa mga Pilipino na kung tutuusin ay kababayan niya lang naman. Pero pilit niya paring minulat ang isip ng mga Pilipino. Nakilala rin siya sa ibang bansa sa pagiging matalino na talaga namang kahanga-hanga at isang karangalan sa ating mga Pilipino. Meron pa siyang statue sa Europa.

            Si Rizal ang pambansang bayani sapagkat siya ang naging dahilan ng pagkakagising ni Andres Bonifacio sa katotohanan na ang mga Kastila ay mapagsamantala at manggagamit. Siya ang bayani na gumamit ng napakatalinong pamamaraan ng pakikipaglaban at isina-alang ang buhay ng maraming mga Pilipino. Si Dr. Jose Rizal ang pambansang bayani dahil ipinaglaban nya ang bayan sa pamamagitan ng kanyang mga panulat, lumaban sya hindi gamit ang dahas kundi ang kanyang talino, siya ang pambansang bayani dahil "He is the person who lives for the people" inuna nya ang kapakanan ng bansa kesa sa pansariling kaunlaran.

            Siya ang ating pambansang bayani sapagkat siya ang unang pilipinong nakapag-isa sa damdamin ng mga pilipino ipinagkaloob nya sa kanyang bayan ang sariling buhay at itinuro niya sa sambayanan kung ano ang kalayaan, respeto sa sarili at pagkatao.

Genetic Engineering

GENETIC ENGINEERING

            Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism‘s genetic, or hereditary material to eliminate undesirable characteristics or to produce desirable new one’s. Genetic engineering is used to increase plant and animal food production; to diagnose disease, improving medicinal treatment and produce vaccines and other useful drugs; and to help dispose of industrial wastes. Include in genetic engineering techniques are the selective breeding of plants and animals, hybridization or the reproduction between different strains or species and recombinant DNA.

SELECTIVE BREEDING

            The first genetic engineering technique, still used today was the selective breeding of plants and animals, usually for increasing food production. In selective breeding, only those plants or animals with desirable characteristics are chosen for further breeding. Corn has been selectively bred for increased kernel size and number and for nutritional content for about 7000 years. More recently, selective breeding of wheat and rice to produce higher yields has helped supply the worlds ever increasing need for food.

             Cattle and pigs were first domesticated about 8000 years ago and through selective breeding have become main sources of animal food for humans. Dogs and horses have been selectively bred for thousands of years for work and recreational purposes resulting in more than 130 different dog breeds and 100 different horse breeds.

HYBRIDIZATION

            Hybridization (cross breeding) may involve combining different strains of a species (that is members of the same species in an effort to combine the most desirable characters of both.

Human cloning

Human cloning: the most controversial debate of the decade.

Human somatic cell nuclear transfer, otherwise known (somewhat inaccurately) as creating an embryo by “cloning,” involves:

·         The starvation and subsequent implantation of DNA from specialized, non-sexual cells of one organism (e.g., cells specialized to make that organism’s hair or milk) into an egg whose DNA nucleus has been removed.

·         The resulting egg and nucleus are shocked or chemically treated so that the egg begins to behave as though fertilization has occurred, resulting in the beginning of embryonic development of a second organism containing the entire genetic code of the first organism.

Mammalian cloning, through this nuclear transfer process, has resulted in the birth of hundreds of organisms to date. However, significantly more nuclear transfer generated embryos fail during pregnancy than would fail in sexual reproduction, and a substantial majority of cloned animals who have survived to birth have had some significant birth defect.Reproduction, or perhaps more accurately, replication of an organism’s DNA identity does not normally occur in mammals, with the exception of twinning, which always results in the simultaneous birth of siblings. Only plants reproduce through replication from one generation to another. The prospect of such replication for humans has resulted in the most controversial debate about reproduction ever to be taken up in western civilization.

It’s an answer to infertility, claim supporters.

Cloning Issues

In addition to the obvious risks to the first child, noted below, those who oppose human cloning point to the repugnance of a style of reproduction with such profound potential for vanity, arguing that the freedom of children and nature of the family are in danger.

Proponents of cloning suggested it might serve as a new, unusual but perhaps efficacious treatment for infertility, enabling those unable to pass genes to future generations to do so in a way that is at least analogous to the familial linkage of twins.

Perhaps the most urgent ethical, legal and social issues about cloning arise in the context and process that may lead to the birth of a first human clone. This is so because, as has been pointed out by scholars and politicians, early human experiments are likely to result in a number of clinical failures and lead to miscarriage, the necessity of dozens or even hundreds of abortions, or births of massively deformed offspring. Recent study of mammalian cloning also suggests that a number of defects often created in the reprogramming of the egg do not manifest themselves until later in the life of the resulting clone, so that mature clones have often undergone spectacular, unforeseen deaths.

Failure, miscarriage, or deformed offspring likely in early experiments.Some defects may not be revealed until a clone is mature.

The dangers for early prospective clones are controversial and difficult to manage because

·         in part, one is attempting to protect a future potential person against harms that might be inflicted by their very existence, and

·         in part because societies around the world have indicated that they believe that the early cloning experiments will breach a natural barrier that is moral in character, taking humans into a realm of self-engineering that vastly exceeds any prior experiments with new reproductive technology.

Can the law prevent the birth of a clone when it’s our right to have children?

Laws that would prevent the birth of a first clone are difficult because they traverse complex jurisprudential ground: protecting an as-yet nonexistent life against reproductive dangers, in a western world that, in statutory and case law at least, favors reproductive autonomy.

But the dangers for the first clone pale in comparison to the ethical issues that will arise should cloning succeed in producing a healthy child, and become part of the repertoire of new reproductive technologies presently offered to those with sufficient funds.

Is a cloned embryo the same as a conceived embryo?

·         The creation of Dolly the sheep at Roslyn, Scotland labs of biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics (and not-for-profit Roslyn Institute) did not involve any of the hallmarks of what is known socially, religiously, and scientifically, as conception: the fusion of egg and sperm and the adhesion of the thus fertilized egg to the wall of the uterus.⁵

·         The genetic and cellular material that led to Dolly indeed might not even qualify in traditional terms as an embryo, in that mammalian embryos are scientifically defined in part by how they come into being. It is quite difficult to divine “what is in the dish” where a “clone” is being created, a problem that plagues all those who would define and regulate the creation and research on embryonic progenitors of a clone.

Does a clone have parents, autonomy, or even a soul?

By analogy, many have speculated as to whether:

·         a human clone lacks traits necessary for true independence from “parent” progenitors

·         whether a clone is entitled by contrast to feel that a progenitor (genetically its monozygotic twin) is an appropriate parent

·         and many in the general public in western nations identified the most important problem of cloning as whether a clone would have a soul.

How a clone is to be defined, or rather how difficult is the task of finding a way of understanding human cloning in terms from traditional language and contemporary institutions of science and parenting, has proven to be a most formidable challenge.

In moral terms, the questions to be asked about cloning, were it shown to be safe and effective, are:

·         Whether and how does cloning relate to other kinds of families?

·         What sorts of boundaries of parenthood and social responsibility are challenged by cloning?

What is parenthood or society in a world that includes clones?

Can cloned children choose their own destiny?

Legal scholars have argued that cloning may violate, for example, a child’s “right to an open future.” A child born as a genetic copy of another may feel undue pressure to become like or different from its progenitor. Yet a right to an open future is difficult to validate by common law or analogy to ethical analysis about parenthood. What is parenthood, after all, but the teaching of values and knowledge to children in an act of stewardship? Perhaps children do not ever have fully open futures. Failing an absolute standard, society will have to find ways to reconcile differences among the many kinds and degrees of parental control and enhancement of children. While it is tempting to describe cloning as either a radical new form of parenting or as twinning, either analysis fails to take account of the need for new ways to integrate the problem of cloning into social institutions before it becomes an accepted form of reproductive medicine.

If humans “make” babies rather than “have” babies, are they playing God?

Conclusion

Cloning offers remarkable insight into the power of creation that humanity has taken into its fold. One theological analysis holds that humans are co-creators with God; perhaps it is more accurate to say that humans are moving ever closer to a posture of making babies, rather than having babies. Cloning represents a remarkable test of human restraint, wisdom and institutional development, one that will in many ways identify the moral features of 21st century biotechnology.

I.           

GENES

Genes are strings of chemicals that help create

the proteins that make up your body. Genes are

found in long coiled chains called chromosomes.

They are located in the nuclei of the cells in your

body:

II. "THREE WAYS TO MAKE AN EMBRYO"

  In sexual reproduction a child gets half its genes from its

mother (in her egg) and half from its father (in his sperm):

  Cloning is an asexual form of reproduction.

All the child's genes would come from a body

cell of a single individual:

Who is the clonal child's genetic mother or father?

As we understand those terms, a clonal child wouldn't have a genetic mother or father, it would have a single 'nuclear donor.'

 

If a man cloned himself, would the child be that man's son or his twin brother? It would be neither, it would be a new category of  biological relationship: his clone.

III. STEM CELLS

  Stem cells are primordial cells capable of  developing into a variety of  types of  cells. Some stem cells are found in the adult body. Others are found in very early embryos. These stem cells can be cultured in petri dishes and potentially used to generate "therapeutic tissues" or "spare organs":

Many people support the use of stem cells of both types for such therapeutic purposes. Many others support the use of adult stem cells for this purpose but oppose the use of embryonic stem cells, because they oppose the destruction or manipulation of  human embryos.

IV. HUMAN CLONING: A CRITICAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN TWO APPLICATIONS

1. Reproductive cloning uses the cloning procedure to produce a clonal embryo which is implanted in a woman's womb with intent to create a fully formed living child--a clone-as shown in diagram 3 above..

2. Therapeutic cloning uses the cloning procedure to produce a clonal embryo, but instead of being implanted in a womb and brought to term it is used to generate stem cells, as shown in diagram 4 above.

The purpose of using clonal embryos to generate stem cells is to allow creation of tissues or organs that the clonal donor can use without having these tissues or organs rejected by their body's immune system. Most people oppose reproductive cloning. Some people oppose reproductive cloning but support therapeutic cloning. Others oppose therapeutic cloning as well as reproductive cloning, either because they are opposed to the destruction of embryos as a matter of principle, or because they feel the acceptance of therapeutic cloning will set us on a slippery slope to thea cceptance of reproductive cloning and human genetic manipulation.

It is possible to support stem cell research and still oppose research involving therapeutic cloning.

The Benefits of Human Cloning by Simon Smith

There are many ways in which in which human cloning is expected to benefit mankind.  Below is a list that is far from complete.

• Dr. Richard Seed, one of the leading proponents of human cloning technology, suggests that it may someday be possible to reverse the aging process because of what we learn from cloning.
• Human cloning technology could be used to reverse heart attacks.  Scientists believe that they may be able to treat heart attack victims by cloning their healthy heart cells and injecting them into the areas of the heart that have been damaged.  Heart disease is the number one killer in the United States and several other industrialized countries.
• There has been a breakthrough with human stem cells.  Embryonic stem cells can be grown to produce organs or tissues to repair or replace damaged ones.  Skin for burn victims, brain cells for the brain damaged, spinal cord cells for quadriplegics and paraplegics, hearts, lungs, livers, and kidneys could be produced.  By combining this technology with human cloning technology it may be possible to produce needed tissue for suffering people that will be free of rejection by their immune systems.  Conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, diabetes, heart failure, degenerative joint disease, and other problems may be made curable if human cloning and its technology are not banned.
• Infertility.  With cloning, infertile couples could have children.  Despite getting a fair amount of publicity in the news current treatments for infertility, in terms of percentages, are not very successful.  One estimate is that current infertility treatments are less than 10 percent successful.  Couples go through physically and emotionally painful procedures for a small chance of having children.  Many couples run out of time and money without successfully having children.  Human cloning could make it possible for many more infertile couples to have children than ever before possible.
• Plastic, reconstructive, and cosmetic surgery.  Because of human cloning and its technology the days of silicone breast implants and other cosmetic procedures that may cause immune disease should soon be over. With the new technology, instead of using materials foreign to the body for such procedures, doctors will be able to manufacture bone, fat, connective tissue, or cartilage that matches the patients tissues exactly.  Anyone will able to have their appearance altered to their satisfaction without the leaking of silicone gel into their bodies or the other problems that occur with present day plastic surgery. Victims of terrible accidents that deform the face should now be able to have their features repaired with new, safer, technology. Limbs for amputees may be able to be regenerated.
• Breast implants.  Most people are aware of the breast implant fiasco in which hundreds of thousands of women received silicone breast implants for cosmetic reasons.  Many came to believe that the implants were making them ill with diseases of their immune systems.  With human cloning and its technology breast augmentation and other forms of cosmetic surgery could be done with implants that would not be any different from the person's normal tissues.
• Defective genes.  The average person carries 8 defective genes inside them.  These defective genes allow people to become sick when they would otherwise remain healthy.  With human cloning and its technology it may be possible to ensure that we no longer suffer because of our defective genes.
• Down's syndrome. Those women at high risk for Down's syndrome can avoid that risk by cloning.
• Tay-Sachs disease. This is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder could be prevented by using cloning to ensure that a child does not express the gene for the disorder
• Liver failure. We may be able to clone livers for liver transplants
• Kidney failure. We may be able to clone kidneys for kidney transplants
• Leukemia.  We should be able to clone the bone marrow for children and adults suffering from leukemia.  This is expected to be one of the first benefits to come from cloning technology.
• Cancer.  We may learn how to switch cells on and off through cloning and thus be able to cure cancer.  Scientists still do not know exactly how cells differentiate into specific kinds of tissue, nor to they understand why cancerous cells lose their differentiation.  Cloning, at long last, may be the key to understanding differentiation and cancer.
• Cystic fibrosis.  We may be able to produce effective genetic therapy against cystic fibrosis.  Ian Wilmut and colleagues are already working on this problem.
• Spinal cord injury. We may learn to grow nerves or the spinal cord back again when they are injured.  Quadriplegics might be able to get out of their wheelchairs and walk again.  Christopher Reeves, the man who played Superman, might be able to walk again.
• Testing for genetic disease.  Cloning technology can be used to test for and perhaps cure genetic diseases.

The above list only scratches the surface of what human cloning technology can do for mankind.  The suffering that can be relieved is staggering.  This new technology heralds a new era of unparalleled advancement in medicine if people will release their fears and let the benefits begin.  Why should another child die from leukemia when if the technology is allowed we should be able to cure it in a few years time?

From various e-mail sent to the Human Cloning Foundation, it is clear that many people would support human cloning in the following situations:

1) A couple has one child then they become infertile and cannot have more children.  Cloning would enable such a couple to have a second child, perhaps a younger twin of the child they already have.

2) A child is lost soon after birth to a tragic accident.  Many parents have written the HCF after losing a baby in a fire, car accident, or other unavoidable disaster.  These grief stricken parents often say that they would like to have their perfect baby back.  Human cloning would allow such parents to have a twin of their lost baby, but it would be like other twins, a unique individual and not a carbon copy of the child that was lost under heartbreaking circumstances.

3) A woman who through some medical emergency ended up having a hysterectomy before being married or having children. Such women have been stripped of their ability to have children. These women need a surrogate mother to have a child of their own DNA, which can be done either by human cloning or by in vitro fertilization.

4) A boy graduates from high school at age 18. He goes to a pool party to celebrate. He confuses the deep end and shallow end and dives head first into the pool, breaking his neck and becoming a quadriplegic. At age 19 he has his first urinary tract infection because of an indwelling urinary catheter and continues to suffer from them the rest of his life. At age 20 he comes down with herpes zoster of the trigeminal nerve. He suffers chronic unbearable pain. At age 21 he inherits a 10 million dollar trust fund. He never marries or has children. At age 40 after hearing about Dolly being a clone, he changes his will and has his DNA stored for future human cloning. His future mother will be awarded one million dollars to have him and raise him. His DNA clone will inherit a trust fund. He leaves five million to spinal cord research. He dies feeling that although he was robbed of normal life, his twin/clone will lead a better life.

5) Two parents have a baby boy. Unfortunately the baby has muscular dystrophy. They have another child and it's another boy with muscular dystrophy. They decide not to have any more children. Each boy has over 20 operations as doctors attempt to keep them healthy and mobile. Both boys die as teenagers. The childless parents donate their estate to curing muscular dystrophy and to having their boys cloned when medical science advances enough so that their DNA can live again, but free of muscular dystrophy.

 

Reference

http://www.arhp.org/uploadDocs/cloning.pdf#search=%22human%20cloning%22

Reference this page as: Human Cloning Foundation. "The Benefits of Human Cloning." Internet http://www.humancloning.org/benefits.htm, 1998. This page can be plagiarized, copied, or redistributed freely in order to support human cloning and its technology.